Sexual Harm: Multifaceted Problems, Interdisciplinary Solutions

Welcome, to our special 100th blog as a team. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Journal, ATSA, the blogging team [thanks David and Jon] and all contributors, as well as everyone who reads the blogs. Here's to the next 100 blogs. Thanks. - Kieran


It was a little over two years ago that Robin Wilson handed over the reins of the SAJRT Blog to Kieran, who along with David and Jon have continued to shine a light on the challenges of mitigating sexual harm.  Since then, this blog marks number 100; so we thought it would be a good time to reflect on ‘the big picture,’ if you will – how the etiologies, treatment, management, and prevention of sexual harm are a multifaceted, interdisciplinary matter.  The links in this special, 100th blog are to selected SAJRT blogs that have been published over the last two years.

The SAJRT blog has offered discussions, broadly, about ‘sex offender’ research, risk, treatment, management, prevention, policies, and practices.  Guest bloggers have included researchers and practitioners from across the field of sexual harm and from around the world. The blog has highlighted how a multitude of voices (including victims, advocates, professionals in many fields, media, even perpetrators…) are central to understanding how to mitigate or prevent sexual abuse.  

Sexual harm is often discussed in the stark, polarizing terms of ‘victim’ and ‘offender’ (abuser or perpetrator), which is problematic for many reasons.  Not only does every incident of sexual harm reach far beyond the two individuals involved, the language of sexual harm tends to reduce two people to their regrettable ‘roles’ – a “victim” of sexual abuse, or a “sex offender.”  At a minimum, sexual harm involves victims, perpetrators, families, friends, peers, institutions, and communities.  Broadly speaking, sexual harm is never about just two people – it involves all of society, and therefore prevention requires public engagement on a global level. 

Sexual offending is a generic term for a continuum of mismanaged sexual behaviours.  Typically we think of sexual misconduct as being criminal behaviour, but sometimes it is a muddled breach of social rules – nearly always it is a violation of relationships.  Sexual offending between juveniles is often categorically different from sexual misconduct by adults.  Not all sexual abusers are male.  Sometimes, sexual misconduct calls for a measured response, while the most egregious cases of sexual violence force difficult discussions about the use of civil commitment, or perhaps even euthanasia.  Non-contact sexual offenses are among the most perplexing.  Getting the right messages to juveniles is imperative.    

The origins of sexual harm are multifaceted, cross all races and cultures, and is a world-wide problem.  Because the etiologies of sexual harm are multidimensional, solutions must be interdisciplinary.  For example, in the UK, the Multi-Agency-Public-Protection-Arrangement (MAPPA) helps to ensure coordination between many stakeholders.   While, historically, ATSA focused more on the research and treatment of sexual abusers, it evolved in understanding the interdisciplinary need for many professionals to work together toward a common goal – the prevention of sexual harm. 

It’s important to recognise that understanding and mitigating sexual harm requires social policies that draw on perspectives from (at least) psychology, sociology, criminology, health (mental-physical-public health), and even economics.  Each of these disciplines deserve a place at any table where sexual harm is discussed.  While some professionals are concerned primarily with perpetrators of sexual harm in clinical and treatment terms, colleagues in other areas may be more involved with victims, or the economics of treatment, maybe the practicalities of housing sex offenders, or perhaps the political ramifications of sexual offending.  Although these are somewhat different matters, they are all valid perspectives on the same broad issues – multiple stakeholders, nationally and internationally, coming together, sharing information, developing a more complete picture of sexual abuse, enabling us to provide the best responses – preventative or reactive. Multiple disciplines and professional perspectives all bring something different, and important, to the table - they open our eyes to different ways of developing and applying best practices to the effective intervention, treatment, and prevention of sexual harm.  

Over the last 100 blogs we have tried to spotlight the professional, social, and practical issues of mitigating sexual abuse, by promoting new research, challenging colleagues to think outside the box, to consider new approaches to treatment, broaden our understanding of ‘interventions,’ and be aware of the consequences of misguided public policies.  Reducing and resolving sexual harm not only requires collaboration between many professions, but more engagement with the public.

By understanding the history, evolution, and politics of sexual misconduct, knowing the latest research, sharing information, and working together between disciplines, we can develop a ‘big picture’ about sexual abuse, more effectively balance competing concerns, and promote best practices that truly lead to both better lives and safer communities.   

100 Blogs, and counting…

From the SAJRT Bloggers - Kieran McCartan, David Prescott, and Jon Brandt

Returning to What’s Real

The elephant in the closet in the treatment and supervision of people who have sexually abused is the voice of the clients themselves. The service user (or in this instance the person who has sexually abused) is at the center of the work that we do, but there perspectives and views of the services that they are subject to are not always present. We need to hear the views, attitudes and perspectives of the service user regarding the work that they are part of (that is listening to the service user voice); we do it in health, business, marketing and other areas of life, but why not sex offender treatment and management? There is an inherent view in some sectors of our field that people who have sexually abused are manipulative, deceptive, and therefore not trustworthy; which means that their views of the service they are part of is unreliable at best and suspect at worst. This is a real issue when one considers that people who have sexually abused are the users of multiple services including counseling, psychology, health, social services, and the criminal justice system. Other users of these services often have mechanisms through which to have their voices heard and participate in the processes that have an impact on their lives. This might take the form of client advisory councils, satisfaction surveys, or feedback-informed treatment.

One has to wonder why a lack of a coherent client/service-user voice is uncommon for one population (e.g., people who have abused) and not another (e.g., people in substance abuse treatment). Perhaps more importantly, do professionals all too often come to think of treatment of people who have sexually abused as something we do to and on our clients rather than with and for them (Miller & Rollnick, 2013)? Do we dictate that treatment must take place in the fashion that we want or one that is most effective for the client? How do we know when we are meeting both the need and responsivity principles in a way that is meaningful for the client? Or is it that we are just as susceptible to bias, misperception, stereotypes and misunderstandings as the public and politicians? Do you “fall in line” with biases that we argue against?  This is an international dilemma, as this problematic approach to the person who has abused as a disenfranchised and unrecognized service user is not just a western problem. Let’s explore this further.

A discussion of the role of Volunteer Probation Officers (VPOs) recently took place at the United Nations Asia and Far East Institute in Tokyo. VPO’s are typically older and well-established citizens who mentor young offenders, from around Japan.  The role of the VPO’s is to assist the young offenders with their behavior, actions, and plans for the future. It is a system designed to provide support and bring about hope and accountability, even as the young offenders can be at risk for disengaging and participating minimally. During the panel discussion, one attendee asked what regrets the VPOs had about their work. The answers were as heart-rending as they were similar; each participant described a time when they had listened more effectively, worked harder to understand the young person, or helped them to achieve the goals that were meaningful to them and not just the legal system.

On their own, these responses are unsurprising, and resemble other human situations where desired outcomes aren’t achieved, such as parents whose children haven’t lived to their full potential or whose lives have ended early. What was striking among the VPOs was what was not said. Reflecting on their failures, no VPO regretted that their young charges had not gotten the diagnostic clarity, effective medication regimes, or the correct empirically supported protocols they needed. In further discussion of this fact, the VPOs acknowledged, as do all professionals, that diagnostic and treatment considerations are vital to success, but that the prevention of failure can reside in the moment-by-moment interactions that all professionals have with their clients.

Likewise, as we go to press with this blog, the Australian Psychological Society has just issued an apology to the indigenous peoples of that country. They state:

To demonstrate our genuine commitment to this apology, we intend to pursue a different way of working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people that will be characterized by diligently:

·         Listening more and talking less

·         Following more and steering less

·         Advocating more and complying less

·         Including more and ignoring less

·         Collaborating more and commanding less

This sounds like good, old-fashioned therapy to us.

Underneath all of our clinical practices – indeed all helpful interactions – lies a particular kind of conversation. Our field is replete with examples of how professionals should speak with and be with clients. This can be a source of great fascination, from the earliest authors, through Carl Rogers’ core conditions, Berg and de Shazer’s focus on the seemingly simple search for solutions, and beyond. Wampold and Imel (2015) referred to the conversation as “perhaps the ultimate in low technology” (p. ix).

Obviously, not all conversations are helpful, even as they are central to all bona fide forms of psychotherapy (Wampold & Imel, 2015). Indeed, Lilienfeld (2007) has highlighted how some treatments can cause harm. What was central to the Japanese VPOs’ assessment of their failures reflects what has been found in research into the therapeutic alliance (Hubble, Duncan, & Miller, 1999; Duncan, Miller, Wampold, & Hubble, 2010). That is, that the most helpful clinical practice takes place when there is agreement, from the client’s perspective, on the nature of their relationship, the goals of their work, and the means by which they go about it. This view of the working alliance dates back decades (Bordin, 1979), although research has also emphasized the importance of delivering treatment in accordance with strong client values and preferences (e.g., Norcross, 2010). Indeed, importance of the alliance has long been recognized (Orlinsky & Rønnestad, 2005).

These points seem worthwhile in the wake of recent discussions on ATSA’s listserv regarding whether treatment “works” and with whom it is most likely to be effective. It often seems odd that professionals in our field rarely ask their clients about their beliefs as to whether the services they receive are helpful. Perhaps this is due to many professional’s beliefs that asking about what does and doesn’t work in treatment would open the door to discord or attempts at manipulation.  Perhaps it’s because many of us couldn’t handle what our clients really think.

Likewise, as professionals we seem hesitant to get into debates about the service user voice evidence-based practices. In a recent conversation on the ATSA listserv a member noted the differences between the American Psychological Association’s definition (“the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture and preferences”) and the more stringent standards for empirically supported protocols such as EMDR and DBT. In the end, understanding the treatment experience from the perspective of the client and working to ensure agreement on the goals and tasks of treatment as well as the nature of the working relationship may have as strong an evidence base as any other approach in the helping professions.

The need to understand, process and reflect upon the service user raises the important question - what is an appropriate evidence base? We spend a lot of time discussing the merits of psychometrics, clinical trials, Randomized Control Trails and downplay the importance of qualitative research. The common narrative in the field is about levels of significance and outcome measures, not necessarily about what was said in and about the treatment. Maybe the first think that we need to do, before listening to and acting, is to recognize the service user voice.

David S. Prescott, LICSW

Kieran McCartan, PhD

References

Goldberg, S.B., Miller, S.D., Nielsen, S.L., Rousmaniere, T., Whipple, J., & Hoyt, W.T. (2016). Do Psychotherapists Improve with Time and Experience? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63, 1-11.

Lilienfeld, S.O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 53-70. Retrieved September 16, 2016 from https://dradamvolungis.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/psychological-treatments-that-cause-harm-lilienfeld-2007.pdf 

Norcross, J. C. (2010). The therapeutic relationship. In B. L. Duncan, S. D. Miller, B. E. Wampold, & M. A. Hubble (Eds.), The heart and soul of change: Delivering what works in therapy (2nd ed.)(pp. 113- 141). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Orlinsky. D.E., Rønnestad. M.H. (2005). How Psychotherapists Develop. A Study of Therapeutic Work and Professional Growth. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Wampold, B. E., & Imel, Z. E. (2015). The great psychotherapy debate: Research evidence for what works in psychotherapy (2nd ed.). New York, US: Routledge.

Balancing the books? Starting to understand the reality of sexual harm in the UK

A recent report from the Crown Prosecution Service [CPS] for England and Wales shows an upturn in reporting, recording, prosecutions and convictions in sexual harm [including, Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, Prostitution, Honour based offences, etc.] for the year 14/15 for women and girls. Although the report indicated that the largest increases were for women and girls as victims of sexual harm and for males as perpetrators, it does also show that there was an increase for men and boys as victims as well as for females as perpetrators too. The data came from the CPS case management system, which means that the results and analysis were based upon what was recorded by CPS staff via the existing databases and systems.

The report signals that:

- The volume of referral’s to the CPS for Sexual Abuse, Domestic Violence and Rape decreased by 3.3% to 124,737 compared to 14/15;

-  The volume of individuals charged with Sexual Abuse, Domestic Violence and Rape by the CPS increased by 0.5% to 86,067 compared to 14/15;

- The volume of individuals prosecuted by the CPS for Sexual Abuse, Domestic Violence and Rape increased by 9.8%, to 117,568 defendant’s, from 14/15 to the highest level ever recorded; and

- The volume of individuals convicted of Sexual Abuse, Domestic Violence and Rape also rose by 10.8%, to 87,275, from 14/15 to 87,275 in 15/16, to the highest level ever recorded.

The main take-home message from the report is that the volume of prosecutions and convictions across the violence against women and children spectrum is the highest that they have been over the last nine years that the CPS has been recording them in this fashion and that new, as well as relatively new, offences (e.g., Female Genital Mutilation, Honour Based crimes and revenge porn offences) have shown increasing referral’s, charges, prosecutions and convictions. The report highlights, what we have often suspected, that the rates of sexual harm and violence against women and children do not match the reality of sexual harm in society. However, it’s important to put these findings into context as we need to recognise that 15/16 was not necessarily a peak year for sexual harm, but rather that it is an indication of a turning tide in society;

- There seems to be a growing trust in the Criminal Justice System epically the police; the public seems to be more willing to report crime and seek prosecutions.

- An increased awareness of violence against women and children in society because of high profile media cases, the IICSA investigation and a series government reviews (inc, prostitution, hate crime, etc).

- Updates and changes to crime recording (including, the recording of new crimes and a change in terminology in existing ones) means that some offences may have not been recorded previously, or if they had been recorded they may have been recorded in a different category.

- A review of sentencing guidelines for sexual offences.

- The increase in historical sexual harm offences being reported and processed by the police, CPS and Courts.

- A commitment from the CPS to offer more support to victims of sexual harm, with the former Prime Minister calling  sexual abuse a national threat.

- An increase in funding to understand, prevent and respond to FMG, honour-based violence and trafficking from the UK government.

This highlights a commitment from the Criminal Justice System in England & Wales and UK government to respond to sexual harm, and related offences, resulting in increased reporting, recording, prosecutions and convictions. The increase revealed by the CPS report is not surprising given the under-reported nature of sexual harm and starts to help us understand the nature of these offences in society; the take-home message seems to be the more we talk, the more we see and the clearer picture we get. Therefore it’s not so much an increase, potentially, but rather a reality check and call for more preventive work and public/societal engagement work to be done.

Kieran McCartan, PhD

Mitigating Sexual Recidivism: ‘Treatment’ or ‘Intervention’?

Trending research demonstrates low rates of sexual recidivism for nearly all juveniles and most adult sexual offenders.  Many studies have been aimed at trying to determine whether ‘sex offender’ treatment is effective at reducing recidivism.  But there is growing evidence that most sexual offenders will not reoffend, regardless of treatment, and moreover, that treatment has only a small or moderate effect on recidivism.  If treatment isn’t as effective as we want it to be, what do we do with such ‘inconvenient’ data?  We can consider elements of an effective intervention, and uniquely tailor individual pathways for clients to recover.  When indicated, it should include sex-specific treatment.

A recent, large meta-analysis by Schmucker and Lösel (2015) reports sexual recidivism of 13.7% for untreated offenders, and 10.1% for clients who completed treatment - an absolute reduction in recidivism of 3.6%, and a relative reduction of 26.3%.  Previous studies by Lösel and Schmucker (2005), (2008) showed a slightly stronger, but still low-moderate treatment effect.  Duwe and Goldman (2009) found a 13.4% sexual reoffense rate for treated clients versus 19.5% sexual recidivism for offenders who did not participate in treatment.  Many other studies have found similar results.

Karl Hanson and colleagues (2014) confirmed a low rate of reoffending (1%-5%) for low risk sexual offenders, and a 22% rate of reoffending for high-risk offenders after five years, but then discovered that after ten years offense-free in the community, high-risk offenders effectively became low recidivism offenders.  Michael Caldwell (2016) completed the largest meta-analysis to date, which revealed current sexual recidivism rates for juveniles is likely to be less than 3%.  In both studies, if clients reoffended, it was likely to occur within the first few years after intervention.  Authors in both studies were unable to determine WHY recidivism was low and desistance was stronger over time; yet it seems that effective treatment might enhance outcomes. 

Risk for reoffending, as part of a psychosexual assessment, seems to have become overly simplified into essentially three categories: low, medium, and high risk, which then often determines outcomes: everything from plea agreements, to incarceration, treatment, and perhaps conditions of supervision or imposition of civil regulations. So how can we analyze the cost-benefit of interventions to clients, and to public interests? 

Gregory DeClue has suggested an empirical process from the world of medical treatment might be helpful to determine the cost-benefit of treatment.  Dr. DeClue points to statistical concepts known as “Number Needed to Treat” (NNT), and “Number Needed to Harm” (NNH). Together, NNT and NNH provide an empirical way to consider, in an aggregate manner, the cost-benefit to “treat” or “not to treat.”  According to DeClue, using data from Schmucker and Lösel (2015), NNT reveals that only about one person in 28 is likely to not reoffend as the direct result of treatment.  That seems like a weak return on the investment, but more troubling is the counterbalance:  to what extent is treatment actually unwarranted, counterproductive, or indeed harmful to individuals and their families – known as iatrogenic consequences?

A meta-analysis by Kim, Benekos, & Merlo (2016) found “that sex offender treatments can be considered proven or at least promising.” They also determined that ages of clients and types of interventions influence the success of treatment.  This study also suggests that outpatient treatment may be more effective than treatment in prison, “If community treatment is more effective than institutional treatment, then a review of existing sentencing statutes and policies might be appropriate.”  So if treatment is not the primary change agent, what is?  It might be, broadly, the intervention.

Most individuals arrested for sexual offending do not sexually reoffend, and treatment effect alone doesn’t account for low recidivism rates; so what else might broadly mitigate reoffending?  Research indicates that civil regulations (the registry, residency restrictions, etc.) are not only ineffective, they might be counterproductive.  More and more, civil regulations are being challenged by the judiciary in state and federal courts as not only being ineffective, but unconstitutional.   Caldwell wrote, “The bulk of available evidence indicates that the decline in adult and juvenile sexual recidivism rates has occurred, unrelated to, and perhaps despite, these recent policy trends.”  The sex offender registry is especially harmful to juveniles.  Birgden and Cucolo (2011) argue that treatment as management, rather than treatment as rehabilitation, panders to public policy and puts unwarranted concerns about public safety ahead of effective treatment.  CSOM promotes a systems approach to interventions, including effective supervision, and that recovery is not all about ‘treatment.’

We should be mindful that reducing risk is not the only aim of treatment, and only tells part of the story about an effective intervention.  And how do we determine what kind of treatment experiences we should offer?  For example, Levenson and Prescott (2013), discuss many benefits that may be derived from treatment, resulting in improved outcomes for clients, victims, and their families - better lives AND safer communities.  Indeed, the same authors have published three studies indicating that people who have sexually abused typically believe their treatment experiences to be worthwhile (e.g., Levenson & Prescott, 2009).  Perhaps one avenue for professionals to consider is moving beyond treatment interventions that focus on reducing risk and help people remain at low risk.  Another treatment target might be helping clients adjust to the social consequences of being publically labeled a “sex offender.” Still another focus of treatment might be “cognitive transformation” – promoting desistance by helping clients view themselves as having become a different (better) person.

When recidivism rates are low, and treatment effect is weak, it raises questions about when sex offender ‘treatment’ is indicated – effectively begging the question: “to treat” or “not to treat.”  The answers are only partially informed by risk/recidivism studies. Many questions abound, including the influence of treatment on the nature, severity, imminence, and frequency of re-offense, if it does occur. Further, while it makes sense to ask whether treatment works, we are still in need of research into the effective components of both treatment and treatment providers. In addition to psychological factors, we should consider situational factors that might contribute to re-offending after treatment completion.

How should new data on the weak effectiveness of ‘treatment’ guide interventions with individual clients?  How should public policies be reviewed in light of new research?   Collectively, new data, and anecdotal evidence, provides strong evidence that the “sex offender system” might be mired not just in ‘old research’ about what works in the treatment and management of sexual offenders, but that public policies are straining valid concerns for public safety.   As a result, systems are overreaching and over-treating individuals, in large numbers, from juveniles to the civilly committed.  The consequences to individuals and families, and the costs to public interests, are incalculable.

Why are so many people ending up in the “sex offender system”?  Perhaps one reason is a tendency to conflate “seriousness” of a sexual offense with “dangerousness.”  This results in catching too many individuals in the “sex offender net,” regardless of “dangerousness” and, out of fear of any risk of reoffending, the system is reluctant to let them go.  In order to avoid any true positives (predicted to reoffend and does), or false negatives (predicted to NOT reoffend but does), the system is willing to tolerate a high percentage of false positives (predicted to reoffend but doesn’t).  Or simply stated, “Better to lock up ten sex offenders than one might reoffend.”  The fallacy is that about nine out of ten offenders are not likely to sexually reoffend, yet we commit vast, unwarranted public resources to nine out of ten sexual offenders, as an unwarranted hedge against possible recidivism.

In the UK, with the introduction of the transforming rehabilitation agenda, distinguishing between low and high risk offenders is becoming more salient in community management.  It distinguishes between sex offenders and non sex offenders, by risk categories and management.  All sex offenders are now managed by a streamlined probation services, while low/medium risk non sex offenders are managed by private Community Rehabilitation Companies (on a payment-by-results scheme).  All high/very high risk offenders are managed by traditional probation.  This suggests that the UK government perceives low risk sex offenders as generally more dangerous than low-risk non sex offenders.

Interestingly, in the UK (and elsewhere outside the USA) not all sex offenders receive treatment – it is based on their level of risk and whether or not clients deny their offence.  In the UK, it is usually medium, high and very high risk sex offenders that receive Sex Offender Treatment Programmes (SOTP); with low risk offenders receiving a form of cognitive skills program.  Putting low-risk sex offender in SOTP could actually make clients worse and increase their likelihood of offending. Practitioners and policymakers suggest that we look at alternatives to traditional SOTP, and Ruth Mann points to a wide-range of psycho-social treatment interventions.  With skepticism about whether sex offender treatment works, in the UK, treatment must be evidence-based.  

So what are the takeaways here?   One is to avoid the tendency to measure the success of ‘treatment’ in a dichotomous manner - whether or not clients reoffend.   There is much more to consider in decisions about treatment, e.g. when is treatment indicated?  Should treatment be compulsory?  If so, where should treatment take place (institution or in the community)?  What are the specific treatment targets to measure progress and determine completion?   What kind of treatment is effective for a particular client?   How much treatment is enough?  Principles of Risk-Need-Responsivity and Good Lives are able to empirically guide the application of aggregate data and other research to individual clients.  Sometimes, when empirical evidence suggests treatment is not indicated, we still need to intervene, but find the courage to not put clients through unwarranted or lengthy ‘treatment.’ 

By all indications, a wide-range of interventions seems to effectively mitigate recidivism, so perhaps rather than focusing on “does treatment work,” what might be needed is to fine-tune characteristics of interventions that are demonstrated to be effective with specific types of clients, e.g. juveniles, low risk, non-contact, females, repeat offenders, etc.  Not all sexual offending is rooted in sexual deviancy, sexual compulsion, or sexual violence.  Sometimes people simply lose their sexual boundaries, and it’s not likely to happen again.  While it may be useful to trace pathways to sexual offending, not every sexual offender has a sexual offense “cycle.”  With half of all sexual assaults occurring under the influence of alcohol, treatment for chemical abuse or addiction might be primary.  Not everyone who sexually offends needs sex-specific treatment.  A large percentage of adolescent offenders, and their families, might be well-served by participation in a time-limited psycho-sexual education program.

Because sexual offending is often more about relationship violations than sexual violence, interventions might focus much more on managing social damage, repairing relationships, and restoring families.  When there is so much that can be accomplished by creating a recovery plan that is unique to individuals and their families, it’s unfortunate that there is so much emphasis placed on “relapse prevention,” strict compliance with supervision, or criminal enforcement of civil regulations. Effective interventions can build on the optimism of protective factors, use positive psychology to build social skills, competency, and resiliency, and embrace strength-based principles of Good Lives.

When sexual misconduct occurs, intervention is almost always warranted – ‘treatment’ might not be.  Interventions can be empirically guided by a client’s Risk-Need-Responsivity and principles of Good Lives, and perhaps by uniquely tailoring interventions to individual clients, with consideration of the five “W’s”: who, what, when, where, and why.

Jon Brandt, David Prescott, and Kieran McCartan

Appreciation to Greg DeClue, Ph.D. and Michael D. Thompson, Psy.D. for contributions to this blog.

Alexander, M. (1999) Sex offender treatment efficacy revisited. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 11, 101-116.

Birdgen, A., Cucolo, H., (2011) The Treatment of Sex Offenders: Evidence, Ethics, and Human Rights,  Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 23(3) 295 –313.

Duwe, G., & Goldman, R. (2009) The impact of prison-based treatment on sex offender recidivism: Evidence from Minnesota. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21, 279–307.

Hanson, R.K., Harris, A.J.R., Helmus, L., and Thornton, D. (2014) High-Risk Sex Offenders May Not Be High Risk Forever, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 15, 2792-2813.

Kim, B., Benekos, P., Merlo, A. (2016) Sex offender recidivism revisited: Review of recent meta-analyses on the effects of sex offender treatment. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17: 105-117.

Levenson, J. (in press), Hidden challenges: Sex offenders legislated into homelessness. Journal of Social Work. Published online: June 22, 1016.

Levenson, J. & Prescott, D.S. (2013) Déjà vu: From Furby to Langstrom and the evaluation of treatment effectiveness, Journal of Sexual Aggression.

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Lösel, F., & Schmucker, M. (2008) Does sex offender treatment work? A systemic review of outcome evaluations. Psicothema, 20, no. 1, p. 10-19.  http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3423.pdf

Sandler, J.C., Freeman, N.J., and Socia, K.M. (2008) Does a watched pot boil? A time-series analysis of New York State's sex offender registration and notification law. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 14(4), 284-302.

Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2015) The effects of sexual offender treatment on recidivism:  An international meta-analysis of sound quality evaluations.  Journal of Experimental Criminology, 11.